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Sunday 27 April 2014

Crisis Management and Cross-cultural dimension business communication

Crisis Management and Cross-cultural dimension business communication
Professor Ram Lakhan Meena, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer


We also provide coaching that will prepare you for specific negotiations. In close cooperation with you we will analyze and organize any given negotiation situation. We will provide you with the skills best suited for handling a given situation and will enhance your behavioral repertoire. If necessary, we will support you during the entire negotiation process in the role of „ghost negotiators“. For reasons of competition as for many other reasons, it is important for a business company to be prepared for a possible crisis and to be in a position to react adequately and swiftly should a crisis actually arise. The ability to take action as quickly as possible is essential for the continuity of business processes. It is, of course, also of vital importance to protect the personnel from any bodily harm and to avert any damage to the company's image. The possibility of a crisis therefore calls for special processes and structures within the company - an effective crisis management (system). In a critical situation it is necessary that a number of people in different locations who communicate via video and telephone conferences must reach the right decisions under considerable time pressure. Every person involved must be able to contribute his or her particular viewpoint and be integrated into the overall process. This highly stressful mode of communication is easily disrupted. Preliminary services can considerably improve the effectiveness and quality of the decision-taking process of a crisis management team. We can support you in the complex process of recognizing and implementing the particular measures necessary for the adequate management of a crisis. Our services are designed to cover the comprehensive process of equipping crisis management groups and individuals in exposed positions. We help them to define appropriate actions and provide psychological support- before, during, and after a crisis. Those responsible for crisis or emergency management will also find us a competent partner in the development of a "new" crisis management or the inspection and maintenance of existing crisis management systems.
·         We train and coach crisis management teams with the help of services tailored to the needs of our clients.
·         We develop processes and structures of crisis management.
·         We model and set up a crisis management team.
·         We draw up crisis management plans or manuals.
·         We coach crisis management teams.
·         We advise high-ranking individuals and individuals who are at risk regarding critical situations.
·         We support in real-life crises.
·         We support traumatized individuals during and after a crisis.

There are no patent remedies or ready-made solutions for critical situations. However, any solution must heavily depend on processes which involve communication, information, decision-taking and stress management. The recognition and assessment of such processes requires profound psychological competence, clearly defined tactical viewpoints and in particular long-standing experience in the management of critical situations. Equipped with all of these capabilities we provide all you require for making your company crisis-proof.
Cross-cultural dimension business communication
 As the American workplace has become increasingly multicultural and business more international, cross-cultural communications have become a big topic. Companies today must pay more attention to the dynamics of employees and colleagues of different national origins and ethnicities, especially because poor responses and lack of understanding can invite charges of harassment and discrimination. The health of your business may well depend on your ability to bridge cultural gaps.

Significance

In the changing American workplace, people of different national and ethnic origins play regular and important roles. Everyone brings skills and points of view, and at the same time, everyone in your operation has to adjust. A diverse workplace may mean different communication styles, expectations of behavior and approaches. Certainly foreigners must adjust to the generalized standards of the American workplace, but to some extent, workplaces have to adjust to incorporate new talent. This may include different ways of phrasing things, writing in clearer language or using more written communication to make up for a colleague’s speaking challenges.

Effects

A diverse population means adapting sales and marketing communications to the various populations that make up the United States. Many companies recognize that varying demographics in different cities, regions and even neighborhoods mean having to come up with different communication approaches. As a result, you may notice billboards in Spanish in some neighborhoods or a national retail chain using more television advertising in one region and more print ads in another.

Misconceptions

Phrases and ideas don't always translate. Numerous companies have found that selling their products in foreign markets has meant changing slogans and branding strategies to meet the tastes of a new target demographic. For example, in many third-world countries, fast-food restaurants are actually expensive to the local population. The low-cost and good value strategies often used in the United States have to be changed to present fast food as a premium product. In another example, products that may be sold with sexually themed or suggestive marketing in North America and European countries may have to be revamped for sales in Middle Eastern and Asian countries where such messages are offensive.

Considerations

When conducting business internationally, entrepreneurs learn that cultures have different expectations and protocols when it comes to meetings and interpersonal discussions. Cultures such as those of Japan and China have strong power distance values, and much of the speaking and interaction is done by the most senior member of a group. In fact, it may be inappropriate for someone lower in your organization to speak to a leader in theirs. Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian cultures consider socialization and getting to know one another a very important part of in-person meetings. Therefore, the American standard of "getting down to business" may hit a wall with cultures that consider building trust between parties essential to the business process.

Geography

In a time of international corporations and foreign outsourcing, business teams are spanning continents. Employees in the Americas may find themselves working closely with people in India, Japan and France all at once. Finding common ways of working together can be challenging -- especially when communication is primarily through email and occasional video conferences. Companies that elect to outsource and operate international offices have to consider guidelines, protocols and significant education on communication and working together. Otherwise, employees can easily find themselves struggling to work together, and productivity suffers.
Prior study of the country where you will do business is the most important step to successful international business negotiations. Taking the time to get to know the local culture will serve you and your company well. Learning and applying knowledge about another culture can help your business perform well internationally. Cross-cultural business communication starts with your taking the initiative to learn about the places where and the people with whom you will do business.

Awareness

Just the simple act of being aware of your surroundings before you enter business negotiations in another country can help you succeed. Study the culture of the country to which you’re traveling before you arrive. Learn what insults them and determine the cultural norms in situations like dining out and meeting new people, both of which are common in business dealings. Americans and Japanese view business negotiations very differently, for example. Americans view original contracts as being very important, while Japanese view them as a starting point for future negotiations.

Do as the Romans Do

When you’re in another country, try to act as the locals do whenever possible. No amount of pre-trip studying of a culture can prepare you for every social situation, but paying attention to those around you can help you work your way through business and social dealings. For example, British business culture allows for discussion and criticism of ideas in a business meeting, but in many hierarchical cultures, business meetings are the forum to inform employees of decisions already made. There is no room for criticism or questioning.

English

Although English is the world’s language of business communication, remember that many people learn English as a second language. The figures of speech you use on a regular basis may not be understood by someone whose native language is not English. This can be the case even in two English-speaking countries. Speak clearly and simply. Don’t speak louder, or so slow as to insult the person with whom you’re speaking, however. Get a reliable interpreter if necessary to ensure clear communication.
Business negotiations
Again, study the culture before you make your presentation. If the culture is more relaxed than yours, you may have to start your presentation later than you originally anticipated. Allow for networking and talking time before your presentation in these cultures. Be ready to present your material using the technology available in the country. You may have to use an overhead projector or a blackboard instead of a computer and projector. People in some cultures do not like visual aids in presentations, but would rather witness your oratory skills. In business negotiations, both parties typically wish to avoid conflict and persuade the other party to agree with them. However, cross-cultural conflicts do arise due to cultural preconceptions and communication barriers. Mediating the conflict as soon as possible after it occurs will help to avoid lasting negative feelings. The mediator is a third party who facilitates productive resolution of conflict, refraining from becoming emotionally involved in it. Members of a company negotiating with another should understand mediation skills, so any group member is prepared to intervene as mediator if need be.

Meet Face-to-Face

Meeting face-to-face may seem an implicit part of any mediation plan, but in a geographically broad business environment, it can pose a challenge. If each negotiator walked away with a negative perception of the other, a skilled mediator who detects the issue might arrange a face-to-face discussion via webcam. Talking face-to-face creates a richer interaction that allows participants to see each other as more human, even if done via Internet.

Hold Pre-mediation Conferences

Holding conferences separately with each party prior to speaking with them together allows them to each voice his frustration. Each may then feel less hostile toward the other party, particularly if the mediator offers counseling support. Having researched the cultural background of each participant, the mediator can help him to understand the root causes of the disagreement. The argument or negative feelings may have stemmed from a dramatically different understanding of what is polite and acceptable, for instance. The mediator also can help each party to frame his position in a tactful way that voices the validity of different cultural perspectives.

Exercise Culturally Aware Mediation

Mediation itself is often structured from within a westernized framework. A culturally aware mediator strives to make both parties feel comfortable talking and to give them culturally appropriate ways in which to express themselves. In mediation, participants are often expected to speak in a frank, straightforward manner. However, people from individualistic cultures, such as American and Canadian cultures, often feel more comfortable speaking frankly. In many Asian cultures, speakers naturally encode their messages in nonverbal expressions, and assume that the other party understands their message partly from the context. Understanding the cultural tendencies of the two parties will help the mediator to know when further verbal feedback is needed.
                                                               Use the Bridging Technique
The bridging technique helps mediators to encourage each party to expand its statements as need be. In this strategy, the mediator responds to a speaker with an empathetic response, articulating what remains unspoken. For instance, the mediator might point out that one party looks increasingly impatient or frustrated, linking this to the trigger for that emotion. The mediator would then prompt that party to elaborate on why she feels this way. This technique helps the parties to candidly discuss cultural perspectives they may have taken for granted.


Professor Ram Lakhan Meena: Preparation to a successful interview

Professor Ram Lakhan Meena: Preparation to a successful interview: Preparation  to a successful interview Professor Ram Lakhan Meena, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer Communication  is the ac...

Preparation to a successful interview

Preparation  to a successful interview

Professor Ram Lakhan Meena, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer

Communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the sender. Human spoken and pictorial languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. 
The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certain properties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line between a language and a dialectConstructed languages such as Esperantoprogramming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages. Communication is the flow or exchange of information within people or group of people.Often overlooked, interview preparation is critical to a successful interview.
1.      Gather Information - How much do you know about the company you are about to visit? Employers respect candidates who do their research. Access to the Internet has made it simple to learn about a firm’s performance, growth plans, and reputation in the marketplace. Check for their web page, or search for any newspaper or periodical reports that may give you some insight into a particular firm.
2.      Prepare your Answers - Be ready to describe your most significant personal and professional accomplishments, your short-term and long-term goals, and your strengths and weaknesses. Have concrete examples ready. DO NOT rely on your ability to "ad-lib" in this situation.
3.      Sweat the Details - Know exactly where the interview is located, and how long it will take you to arrive at the appointed time. Prepare for any possible traffic delays. Make sure you have the correct spelling and pronunciation of the interviewer’s name, and know their title. Bring an updated copy of your resume, a list of personal references, a pen and a notepad.
4.      Dress Appropriately - A professional and well-groomed appearance is critical. It is often a good idea to keep your dress conservative. Consult with your placement consultant to help determine proper attire.
AT THE INTERVIEW...
1.      Arrive early. 5 to 10 minutes are sufficient.
2.      Express a positive and enthusiastic attitude.
3.      Remember your body language. The manner in which you carry yourself can leave either a positive or negative impression. Sit straight, yet comfortably. Don’t be afraid to lean forward and show interest. Make eye contact with the interviewer whenever you can.
4.      Show confidence, without arrogance. You should be selling yourself and your background as an excellent fit for the position, but DO NOT boast or brag excessively. Remember that confidence is impressive, but cockiness is annoying.
5.      Speak positively about past and current employers. You do not want to appear negative towards management.
6.      A firm handshake is still important!
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS...
1.      What are your strengths? Provide the interviewer an example of one or two strengths, and provide concrete examples of how it affected your work in a positive way. Stay away from identifying standard characteristics without examples (i.e. "I’m detail-oriented, I’m a hard worker, etc.")
2.      Why are you interested in working here? This is a good opportunity to show that you’ve researched the company, and that you had been impressed by their reputation, growth-track, and so forth. Show interest in the job responsibilities of the position available, as opposed to what you hope the position will lead to next. Stay away from answers like "well, it’s more money," or "it’s an easier commute for me." The interviewer may think you’ll leave their company for similar reasons.
3.      What is your biggest weakness? Cite a lack of experience in an area largely unnecessary to the job you’ll be performing.
4.      Why are you leaving your current position? Make it clear that you have arrived at this decision after long and careful deliberation. Never criticize a current or former employer. In fact, show appreciation to them for the opportunities they gave you.
5.      What has been your proudest accomplishment? As part of your preparation, you should have an impressive example ready. Have you ever saved your employer significant amounts of time or money? What have you done that you may be remembered for in a positive way? Show the interviewer how valuable you can be!
QUESTIONS TO ASK
1.      "I understand what a (NAME OF POSITION) does, but just so we’re on the same page, what are the duties and responsibilities of this position?" This is an excellent way to discover exactly what the employer expects of you. Show the interviewer how you will perform those tasks effectively, and how your approach to the position will solve their company’s problems.
2.      "What are the most important aspects of the successful candidate?" Again, this question should provide you with insight into what the company needs, both personally and professionally, from the ideal applicant. After their answer, give them examples of how you fit the profile.
3.      "If I were hired, what would be my first project or production goal?" If your prospective employer has unrealistic expectations, this is a good way to uncover them. Hopefully, they will appear attainable. Illustrate how you can exceed, not just meet, their goals. Give examples from your work experience, if possible.
4.      "How will my performance be assessed?" You certainly want to know how your work will be measured, and the employer should see this as a fair and insightful question.
QUESTIONS NOT TO ASK
·         "What will my salary be? How are your benefits?" The employer wants to believe you’re interested for reasons other than compensation and benefits. NEVER bring this up in the first interview. If you are asked about your salary expectations, especially towards the end of the meeting, it’s often a good sign- a "buying signal" that the interviewer is interested. Simply reply- "Right now, my total compensation is ($). To make a move, I would expect a reasonable increase."
·         "What are the hours here? What time do we go home? How long is lunch?..etc." Even if you’re just curious, you may appear to be someone who watches the clock until it’s time to leave. The employer must feel that you are ready to put in whatever hours are necessary to get the job done and that you bring a good work ethic to the table.
·         "How soon will I have the chance to advance?" It is perfectly fine to inquire about personal growth potential, however, the employer’s most pressing concern is filling the job at hand. Don’t give them the impression that you’ll be ready to move on after 6 months! Instead, ask the interviewer- "If my performance is judged as excellent, how could I further my career within your organization?"
IN CONCLUSION
1.      Restate the position’s requirements and responsibilities as you understand them, and ask the interviewer if your conclusions are correct. If so, tell the interviewer that you will be able to solve the critical challenges of the position. Reiterate the reasons why this is true, showing how your background and attributes matches their needs perfectly.
2.      Ask the interviewer if you can address any of their remaining concerns.
3.      Tell the interviewer that you want the job! This can be done easily and diplomatically- "I am very interested in joining your organization. What is the next step?" or "I am excited at the prospect of working for your firm, and would accept an offer, if extended." You must show enthusiasm for the position to receive an offer, and it is common for a company to miss out on the best candidate for their opening because of a perceived lack of interest on the candidate’s part.
4.      Write a thank you note that day, using their business card to get the correct spelling of their name and their correct title.


REMEMBER...The best jobs go to the candidates with the best interviewing skills! Qualifications and references are often not enough to land the job you really want. Through research and preparation, you can interview with the best of them. 
Let us examine communication and communication theory through the following viewpoints:
§    Mechanistic - The mechanistic view point says that communication is simply the transmission of information from the first party to the second party. The first party being the sender and the second party being the receiver.
§    Psychological - According to the psychological view point, communication is simply not the flow of information from the sender to the receiver but actually the thoughts, feelings of the sender which he tries to share with the recepients. It also includes the reactions, feelings of the receiver after he decodes the information.
§    Social - The social view point considers communication as a result of interaction between the sender and the receiver. It simply says that communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech. “How one communicates” is the basis of the social view point.
§    Systemic - The systemic view point says that communication is actually a new and a different message which is created when various individuals interpret it in their own way and then reinterpret it and draw their own conclusion.
§    Critical - The critical view point says that communication is simply a way with the help of which an individual expresses his power and authority among other individuals.
To summarize the communication theory proposes that to survive, every living entity, needs to communicate with others and also among themselves. Communication is a dire need of survival.

Linguistic Aspect of Nonverbal Behaviour

Linguistic Aspect of Nonverbal Behaviour
Professor (Dr) Ram Lakhana Meena, Central University of Rajasthan,Ajmer


1.1. What is Nonverbal Behaviour?
What is nonverbal behaviour and what does study of nonverbal include? Nonverbal behaviour refers to communication human acts distinct from speech. Since nonverbal behaviour includes every communicative human act other than speech (spoken or written), it naturally covers a wide variety and range of phenomena: 'everything from facial expression and gesture to fashion and status symbol, from dance and drama to music and mine, from flow of affect to flow of traffic, form the territoriality of animals to the protocol of diplomats, form extra-sensory of violence to the rhetoric of topless dancers' (Harrison, 1973).

The nonverbal behaviour is taken generally to include facial and eye expressions, hand and arm gestures, postures, positions, use of space between individuals and objects, and various movements of the body, legs and feet. Since nonverbal behaviour is considered as distinct from speech, it also includes silence as well as dropping of elements form speech and/or the missing elements in speech utterances. There is a general consensus that, although nonverbal behaviour means acts other than speech, in a broader sense nonverbal behaviour includes also a variety of subtle aspects of speech variously called paralinguistic or vocal phenomena. These phenomena include fundamental frequency range, intensity range, speech errors, pauses, and speech rate and speech duration. These features are of a nature that somewhat eludes explicit description when used in communicative contexts. In other words, these features are employed for implied meanings and are not explicitly describable and/or stated through/as linguistic units. Also included in discussions of nonverbal behaviour are other complex communication phenomena, such as sarcasm, 'wherein consistent combinations of verbal and nonverbal behaviour take on special significance in subtly conveying feeling' (Mehrabian, 1972).
Thus even though as a working definition nonverbal behaviour is conceived to be everything other than speech, the boundary between verbal and nonverbal is always blurred and there are certain aspects of speech which fall within the domains of nonverbal behaviour. In view of this, it is not surprising to find that the researchers have differed among themselves as regards the definition and scope of the study of nonverbal behaviour. For Argyle (1969), nonverbal behaviour includes bodily contact, posture, physical appearance, facial and gestural movement, direction of gaze and the paralinguistic variables of emotional tone, timing and accent. Duncan (1969) includes body movement or kinesic behaviour, paralanguage, proxemics, olfaction, skin sensitivity to temperature and touch, and the use of artifacts. For Scheflen postural, tactile, odorific, territorial, proxemicl vocal modalities of paralinguistic behaviours. Knapp (1972) includes body motion, or kinesic behaviour, facial expression, physical characteristics, eye behaviour, touching behaviour, paralanguage, proxemics, artifacts and environmental factors. Poyotos (1977) proposes a classification of nonverbal phenomena based on sensory channels, possible combinations of verbal and nonverbal and on the interactional potential or otherwise of the behaviour. Thus, the sensory channels involved are acoustic, visual, olfactory and tactile. 

The classes identified are verbal-vocal, nonverbal-vocal, and nonverbal-nonvocal. Some acts are interactional and come are not interactional. Harrison (1973) covers the nonverbal behaviour domain under four codes: preformance codes based on bodily actions, artifactual codes (the use of clothing, jewellery, etc.), mediational codes involving manipulation of the media, and contextual codes such as employment of nonverbal signs in time and space. Harper et al (1978) limit their consideration of nonverbal phenomena to those that are most important in the structuring and occurrence of interpersonal communication and the movement to movement regulation of the interaction. The nonverbal phenomena include, for them, consideration of spatial (proxemic) aspects of the physical setting of interaction, but not dress, use of artifacts and physical characteristics, as constituting nonverbal behaviour. Note that all these definitions generally centre on body area and body activities. Several of these also cover the use of artifacts. Most of the definitions cover the user of paralanguage and manipulation of certain aspects of speech under nonverbal behaviour. In this paper nonverbal behaviour is studied from the following angles: (i) Proxemic, (ii) Postural, (iii) Facial, (iv) Movement, (v) Paralanguage, (vi) Eye, (vii) Silence, (viii) Perceptual features (artifacts) and (ix) Gesture. These features are covered under several chapters. First, apart from presenting the scope and definition of nonverbal behaviour, discusses the relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication and various approaches to the study of nonverbal communication. Second, presents proxemic behaviour; Third, presents nonverbal communication as expressed through eye and face; Forth, discusses nonverbal behavioural aspects of language use and silence; Fifth, discusses gesture; and Sixth,  presents salient features of nonverbal communication in abnormal individuals.
1.2. Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
There are several ways in which the nonverbal behaviour is seen clearly related to verbal behaviour. This relationship is one of dependence and also of independence. There are nonverbal communicative acts that are easily and accurately translated into words. Several gestures clearly illustrate this relationship. For example, the gesture of folded hands for namaste, the gesture of handshake, a smile, a frown, etc., are generally translatable into words. There is also a class of nonverbal acts that are very much a part of speech and serves the function of emphasis. Examples are head and hand movements that occur more frequently with words, and phrases of emphasis. There are acts which draw pictures of the referents tracing the contour of an object or person referred to verbally. Yet another class of acts is employed for displaying the effects (feelings). Another class refers to acts that help to initiate and terminate the speech of participants in a social situation. These regulators might suggest to a speaker that he keep talking, that he clarify, or that he hurry up and finish (Ekman and Friesen, 1969).

There are at least six ways in which the relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication can be characterized. These areas as follows:
(1) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication is one of the latter playing a supplementary role to the former. The nonverbal acts that are supplementary to verbal acts may precede or follow or be simultaneous with the verbal acts. For example, in many verbal acts one notices an accompaniment of one or more nonverbal acts, such as gestures, facial expressions, and movement towards or away from the addressee, to illumine the meaning of the former. While for any verbal acts such an accompaniment may only be considered redundant, for several others, such an accompaniment explicitness, clarity, emphasis, discrimination and reinforcement.
(2) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication is also one of the former playing a supplementary role to the latter. In many verbal acts, both in children and adults, in normals with all the linguistic organs intact, and normals with some handicap to the linguistic organs, as well as in abnormal individuals, nonverbal acts may take precedence over the verbal acts in several ways. In the normals with all the linguistic organs intact, occasions demand the use of nonverbal acts such as pantomime and gestures for aesthetic purposes, and for purposes of coded (secret) communication. Indulgence in nonverbal acts as primary medium is also necessitated by the distance that separates the parties which can, however, retain visual contact while engaging themselves in communication.
(3) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could be one of correspondence as well. That is, there are several nonverbal acts that can be accurately translated into words in the language of a culture in which such nonverbal acts are performed. A handshake, shaking a fist at someone, a smile, and frown, etc., is all nonverbal acts translatable into verbal medium in a particular language. The functions of these nonverbal acts, context to context, are also codified in aesthetic nonverbal acts, such as dance, sculpture and other arts. The correspondence is sometimes translatable into words, sometimes into phrases and sentences, and several times translatable into compressed episodes involving lengthy language discourses. But the correspondence is there all the same and the import of this correspondence is shared between individuals within a community. There is also yet another correspondence of nonverbal acts in the sense that similar nonverbal acts could mean different things in different cultures.
(4) Yet another relationship between a verbal act and a nonverbal act is one of dependence. A verbal act may depend for its correct interpretation entirely on a nonverbal act. Likewise a nonverbal act may depend for its correct interpretation entirely on a verbal act. In extreme circumstances, the former is caused because of deliberate distortion of the verbal act, or because of the difficulty in listening clearly to the verbal act, or because of the difficulty in reading with clarity what is intended to be read in the written verbal message. Deliberate distortion is not found only in contrived acts such as poetry or drama. It is done in day to day language itself. Distortion and opacity of the verbal message are also required in certain socio-cultural contexts wherein it is demanded that verbal acts be suppressed and made dependent on nonverbal acts. The dominant nonverbal act also depends on verbal acts for clarity. This dependence also depends on verbal acts for clarity. It also occurs in daily life.
(5) Verbal and nonverbal acts can be independent of one another. Something is communicated through a verbal act. The continued manifestation of this communicative act may be in the form of nonverbal acts. That is, in a single communicative act, part of the message may be in verbal form and the rest in nonverbal, in an alternating way. Each part is independent of the other. This is contrived in poetry and drama. It is also found in everyday life. An extreme form of this independence is the gulf that we notice between what one says and what one does. Also prevarication both in word and deed derives its strength, among others, from this feature.
(6) Another relationship between verbal and nonverbal acts in one of non-relevance. This is most commonly found in normal adult speech and its accompanying gestures which are produced simply without any communicative intent. We move our hands, snap our fingers, move our bodies while speaking, with these gestures having no relevance to the speech we make. When this non-relevance between verbal and nonverbal acts found in normal is shifted to non-relevance or irrelevance within the ingle domain, within speech itself or within nonverbal act itself (during which coherence in speech or act is lost), we start considering the individual abnormal in some way. That is, non-relevance across the verbal and nonverbal media is normal, but non-relevance within a single medium is abnormal. The non-relevance is idiosyncratic and could be limitational as well. In the normals the excessive non-relevance of nonverbal acts accompanying speech comes to hamper the understanding of the verbal acts.
Harrison (1973) has suggested the following functions for nonverbal communications:
(1) Nonverbal signs define, conditions, and constrain the system; for example, time, place and arrangement may provide cues for the participants as to who is in the system, what the pattern of interaction will be, and what is appropriate and inappropriate communication content.
(2) Nonverbal signs help regulate the system, cueing hierarchy and priority among communicators, signalling the flow of interaction, providing meta-communication and feedback.
(3) Nonverbal signs communicate content, sometimes more efficiently than linguistic signs but usually in complementary redundancy to the verbal flow.
Ekman and Friesen (1969) specify five general functions for nonverbal behaviour, namely, repetition, contradiction, complementation, accent and regulation. In repetition there is both verbal and nonverbal expression made simultaneously, where one will do. In contradiction, the verbal and nonverbal behaviours contradict one another as in the case of a verbal praise in a sarcastic tone. In accent, spoken words are emphasized through nonverbal acts. Through the use of eye contact, gestures and others, nonverbal behaviour is employed to regulate human interaction and communication. Based on the above brief discussion, we find that the relationship between verbal and nonverbal behaviours can be considered as follows:
(1) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication is one of the latter playing a supplementary role to the former.
(2) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could be one of the former playing a supplementary role to the latter.
(3) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could be one of correspondence.
(4) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could be one of mutual dependence.
(5) The relationship between the two could also be one of independence from one another.
(6) The relationship between the two could be one of non-relevance as well.
(7) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could be one of one repeating the message of the other.
(8) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could be one act contradicting the other.
(9) The relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication could also be one of mutual emphasis.
(10) Finally, the relationship between the two could also be one of mutual regulation.
While the study of verbal behaviour and nonverbal has been done independently in several disciplines, the relationship between the two has not received the attention it deserves. Human communication is a wholesome fusion of both verbal and nonverbal acts. This fusion appears to have both physiological (genetic) as well as socio-cultural consequences. The fusion of verbal and nonverbal behaviours in a communicative act marks the human species distinct from other species. That is, the manner in which the fusion between verbal and nonverbal acts has taken place in humans marks the humans distinct from other species. Also, societies and cultures are exploitation of this fusion of verbal and nonverbal acts for varying contexts, pursuits and purposes. Moreover, various cognitive disorders, including language disorders, found in humans can be seen as those of differences in the degree and manner of fusing the verbal and nonverbal behaviours.
That the verbal and nonverbal behaviours are closely related is well recognized by all. Socialization processes in every society insist upon mastery and exploitation of this relationship in both children and adults in their communication modes. For example, what postures, voice modulations, facial expressions, gestures, etc., that one should or should not employ in a particular context for a particular pursuit and purpose are all predetermined in cultures. Deviations from the well-set norm are allowed certain effects only. Deviations are also classified into several abnormal varieties. In esssence, what makes communication essentially human is the intrinsic binding within all such communication between verbal and nonverbal facets.
This binding between verbal and nonverbal behaviour is the result of their phylogeny. Some have claimed that the same deep cognitive system is used in language and nonlinguistic behaviour . Some have claimed that nonverbal behaviour is a developmentally earlier and more primitive form of communication which man shares with animals (Werner, 1957). Reusch (1955) distinguishes between analogically and digitally coded information. The analogically coded information contains the immediate state of felling of the individual. There is a continuous relationship between the events and the interacting individuals. The digitally coded information is verbally or numerically coded information which employs discrete units such as words and numbers. The digitally coded information is much more divorced from the interacting individuals than the analogically coded information.
These, unlike the analogically coded information, pertain to matter which may or may not be temporally or spatially tied to the prevailing interaction. Also the information could be resent in propositional form. Reusch suggests that actions, practical or expressive, convey their messages analogically whereas words and discrete symbols convey their message digitally. According to Reusch, the analogic codification occurred first in the development of communication. Also, analogic codification is viewed as related phylogenetically than digital codification to all communication. While the latter (digital codification) is more amenable for conscious control, the former is not and this is also taken to indicate the precedence of analogic codification over digital codification.
Nonverbal behaviours reflect very basic social orientations that are correlates of major categories in the cognition of social environments (Plaget, 1960). In other words, the nonverbal behaviours pursued in a society reveal the orientations towards interactions between persons that individual members of that society consider as basic. There are also common cognitive and behavioural dimensions for both animal and human social systems. Hence, some have claimed that primates, in particular, can provide complementary information, about certain aspects of affect and attitude communication in humans (Sommer, 1967). That is, the observation of animal social interactions can complement the study of individuals of a single culture and provide corraboration for identified dimensions of social interaction. Furthermore, it has been suggested by many that nonverbal behaviour is also produced by the same underlying processes employed in the production of linguistic utterance and that it shares some of the structural properties of the speech it accompanies.
1.3. Research Strategies
Research strategies employed in the study of nonverbal behaviour can be grouped as those following or falling within linguistic methodologies, methodologies of anthropological investigations and methodologies of psychological investigations. Note, however, that within each of these major pursuits there are several variations based on the approaches and aims of schools within these disciplines. Also note that there are mutual influences found among these strategies. Some of the strategies are not followed widely and some have become strategies rather clearly identified with individual scholars.
1.3.1. Linguistically-oriented Studies of Nonverbal Behaviour
Modern linguistics, both Indian and Western, does not include study of nonverbal behaviour as part of grammar. There are elements of nonverbal behaviour, or rather elements shared both by verbal and nonverbal behaviour, such as implied meanings (presupposition, illocutionary acts whose implications could be brought out by paraphrase etc.) that are sought to be treated within grammar in modern times. However, these attempts have become characteristics of certain off-beat grammatical studies, rather than the core or integral part of grammatical approaches and general practice. In contrast, traditional Indian studies of language always include study of nonverbal behaviour as an integral part of grammar (See below 1.3.5 for a brief descriptive statement and summary). Bloomfield (1933) distinguished between the act of speech and other occurrences which he called practical events. Any incident for him consisted of three parts, in order of time: practical events preceding the act of speech, speech itself, and practical events following that act of speech. While there is, thus, recognition of occurrence of both speech and nonspeech acts in a communicative act, linguists generally focus upon speech rather than on the practical events preceding, accompanying and following act of speech. In general, linguists ignore the nonverbal concomitants of verbal act.

Linguistically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour are, indeed, very few and those few studies also generally aim at adequacy of language description by way of describing such nonverbal behaviours that impinge on verbal behaviour and/or exploit verbal-like elements in the nonverbal act. Moreover, the linguistically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour extend the method of description and transcription of linguistic elements to a description and transcription of nonverbal behaviour. A clear case of linguisticlly-oriented description of nonverbal behaviour is that of Trager (1958). Another study is that of West (1963) who seeks to identify sign language units corresponding to linguistic units, such as words, clauses, phrases and sentences.
Trager recognizes that communication is more than language. Although linguistics aims at the description of language as a system of communication, linguists limit themselves to examination of such parts of linguistic structures as they could define and examine objectively. In view of this self-imposed restriction, communication systems other than language remain outside their purview of research. Trager finds this an unsatisfactory approach to the study of language and seeks to devise ways and means to describe systems adjunct to language. Trager calls the study of language and its attendant phenomena as macrolinguistics and divides it into prelinguistics, microlinguistics, and metalinguistics. Prelinguistics is said to include physical and biological events. The statement of the relationship between language and any of other cultural systems constitute metalinguistics while microlinguistics is linguistics proper.
Communication, according to Trager (1958), is divided into language, vocalizations and kinesics. Language employs certain noises made by organs of speech. It combines these noises into recurrent sequences and arranges these sequences in systematic distributions in relation to each other and in reference to external world. Vocalizations do not have the structure of language and consist of variegated noises. Vocalizations also include modifications of language and other noises. In general, vocalizations may be seen as consisting of paralanguage, voice set and voice qualities. Variegated noises other than language ones, and modified language and other noises together are called paralanguage. Voice set involves the physiological and physical peculiarities of noises. With the help of these peculiarities we identify individuals as members of a societal group. We identify them as belonging to certain set, age, state of health, body build, rhythm state, and position in a group, mood, bodily condition and location. Much other identification is also made. Voice qualities consist of matters such as intonation. These are recognizable as forming part of actual speech events and are identified in what is said and heard. Trager lists the following as voice qualities identified so far-pitch range, vocal lip control, glottis control, pitch control, articulation control, rhythm control, resonance and tempo.

The voice set and voice qualities are over all or background characteristics of the voice, whereas the vocalizations are identifiable noises. All these are different from language sounds proper. Trager identifies three kinds of vocalizations constituting paralanguage. These are vocal characterizers, vocal qualifiers and vocal segregates. The vocal characterizers are laughing, crying, giggling, swickering, whimpering, sobbing, yelling and whispering, moaning, groaning, whining, breaking, belching and yawning. The vocal qualifiers are those of intensity, pitch height, and extent. Vocal segregates are items, such as uh-uh, uh-huh and uh, sh! These are sounds which do not fit into phonological and/or word frames in sequences in a language. Trager has viewed study of paralanguage as contributing directly to an understanding of kinesics (study of movement, posture and position individuals assume in their interaction). It may be that in their overall structure these two fields of human behaviour may be largely analogous to each other. For all the variables identified, Trager provides symbols for transcription. The scope of description of the nonverbal behaviour is limited to descriptions of sound features and their functions in manifest behaviour. Thus, even in Trager's efforts, while the importance of nonverbal behaviour for a total description of communication process is recognized, its accomodation in the discipline of linguistics is only towards an illumination and adequate coverage of linguistic behaviour. Also the method of description of nonverbal behaviour is always an extension of the methods of study of linguistic behaviours. Attempts are also made, in this process of extension, to posit corresponding levels of linguistic and nonverbal behaviour.
1.3.2. Anthropologically-oriented Studies of Nonverbal Behaviour
The anthropologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour have a long history. The sign languages of the aboriginals, the communication processes carried on through (non-sign language) gestures, postures, and exchange of goods and rituals, etc., have been discussed in anthropological studies. Nineteenth century American anthropologists showed a lot of interest in the aboriginal sign languages of the Americas. They recognized that the conventional gestural codes employed by American Indians (Red Indians) are independent communication systems which have the range and flexibility found in speech. This recognition is still continued as we find in the works of Kroeber characterizing the sign language communication as follows: 'What makes it an effective system of communication is that it did not remain on a level of naturalness, spontaneity, and full transparency, but made artificial commitments, arbitrary choices between potential expressions and meanings'. The early 19th century work by Colonel Garrick Mallery, who made a collection and study of North American Plains sign language gestures and made a comparison of the same with other codes such as gestures and sign languages of the deaf, gave an impetus to modern interests in nonverbal communication processes in the West. This interest and study influenced anthropological studies in the beginning. At one time nonverbal behaviour within anthropological studies focused only on gestures. Later on other aspects of nonverbal behaviour were also studied. And very soon, in modern anthropology, culture itself began to be viewed as communication. Yet the study of nonverbal communication, in the sense of communication as it is effected through behaviour whose communicative significance cannot be achieved in any other way, is only a recent introduction to anthropology. However, even today the communication processes in the sense of oral and nonverbal interaction has not attracted much attention in anthropological studies. To quote Codere (1966) 'the subjects of gestures, medicine, or games are rarely considered in any single volume ethnography and are even more rarely given any extended treatment.... Once the major ethnographic topics of social organization, economic organization and religion are dealt with, the task is not done if it is defined as giving and sense or indication of the richness and complexity of the culture concerned. Yet why do such topics as technology, the yearly round, and the life cycle have a secure conventional place as secondary topics; such topics as humour and the three mentioned here, no place at all; and such topics as the arts only, and occasional one'. However, in the evolution of studies on nonverbal behaviour as a comprehensive and perhaps an independent discipline, anthropology has played a crucial role. Hall's study of proxemics (See, Chapter-2) has revolutionalized ideas, assumptions and identification of domains of nonverbal behaviour studies. And Hall's contributions come from anthropological bases. If the study of aboriginals' signs is considered the precursor of modern anthropologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour, Hall's contributions have led the anthropologically-oriented nonverbal behaviour studies to explore areas such as proxemics that have become since then bases of ideas and assumptions as well as subject matter of experimental investigations on nonverbal behaviour. Likewise Birdwhistell's works present a formal tool for a description and understanding of nonverbal communication.
Birdwhistell's research strategy (Birdwhistell, 1970) is a clear and illustrious example of the influence of linguistics on the study of nonverbal behaviour. Influenced by development s in American structural linguistics, Birdwhistell makes a very significant contribution, adopting and effectively modifying underlying concepts, methods, and tools of transcription and description of units of language, as propounded and practised in neo-Bloomfieldian structural linguistics. According to Birdwhistell, our communication system is not something we invented but rather something which we internalized in the process of becoming man. Also, research on communication as a systematic and structured organization could not be initiated until we have some idea about the organization of society itself. Bridwhistell contends that communication is multi-channel. It includes both language and paralanguages it also includes gesture and kinesics. There is the inter dependence of visible and audible behaviour in the flow of conversation. Meaning includes both the contents of words and other measures. Also, not all shifts of the human body are not of equal importance or significance to the human communicational system. 'As the organs involved in breathing and swallowing are also involved in vocalic communicative behaviour, so also is the activity of the skin, musculature, and skeleton involved in communicative behaviour. Which particular behaviours are of patterned communicative value, and thus abstractable without falsification, can be determined only by the systematic investigation of the behaviour in the communicational context' (Birdwhistell, 1970). So, what Birdwhistell seeks is not idiosyncratic nonverbal behaviour but patterned behaviour within individuals and across individuals and a systematic study of the same.
Birdwhistell believes that the investigation of human communication by means of linguistic and kinesic techniques is desirable and relevant, Body motion is a learned form of communication, which is patterned within a culture and which can be broken down into an ordered system of isolable elements, just as language. Hence, Birdwhistell pursues the research for communication units based upon linguistic and kinesic analysis. The dependency of Birdwhistell's analysis of body motion on structural linguistics is seen throughout his work. He also finds that such a dependency is not without handicap:
'Techniques and theories developed over the last 2000 years of linguistic research are now and may in the future remain quite relevant for kinesic research and are absolutely necessary to communicational research. However, these techniques are not all immediately and without adaptation transferable to kinesic research. For example, the informant technique, so basic to research on spoken language, is difficult to control in the investigation of kinesic material'.
The influence of linguistics in Birdwhistel's study of kinesic behaviour is clearly seen in his coinage of technical terms for the description of kinesic behaviour, identification of units of kinesic behaviour, correspondence of units between kinesic and linguistic behaviour, method of identification of units, description of units, transcription of units and building up of smaller units into components of larger units. In all these, we find Birdwhistell adopting terms from linguistics. Parallel between linguistic behaviour and kinesic behaviour is rather too manifestly emphasized. This does not mean, however, that Birdwhistell has simply transferred linguistics to the analysis of nonverbal behaviour or that he has nothing new to offer by way of analysis of nonverbal behaviour. Birdwhistell's contribution lies not only in showing the applicability of linguistic analytical tools and methods to kinesic behaviour, but also in itself in several cultures. He has also demonstrated the parallel characteristics of different modalities of communication. We present a few of his contributions in our chapter on proxemics.
Another significant anthropologically-oriented study of nonverbal behaviour is that of E. T. Hall (1959, 1969 and 1977). While Birdwhistell focuses his attention on the description of kinesic behaviour in formulaic expressions, involving a number of derived technical terms, Hall looks at nonverbal behaviour from a descriptive, ethnographic angle without much technical terms and formulaic expressions. Hall's approach to study of nonverbal behaviour is decidedly anthropological and very much ethnographic and crosscultural as well as meant to be a guide for a better world of understanding, tolerance and insightful utilization of human resources: it is also linguisticaally influenced at least in its origins. There is not much of an influence of linguistic terms but there is a sharing of concepts from structural linguistically influenced of linguistic terms but there is a sharing of concepts form structural linguistics. However, Hall's work is more an anthropologist's study of nonverbal behaviour. His transcription system does not draw from linguistic as much as the Birdwhistell's system draws from linguistics. Also, Hall's work is more a comparative ethnographic study of nonverbal behaviour whereas Birdwhistell's approach generally restricts itself to the description of nonverbal behaviour, in particular, the kinesic behaviour of a group without resorting to any comparison of the same with others.
E. T. Hall considers that culture is bio-basic; it is rooted in biological activities. There is an unbroken continuity between the very distant past and the present in the sense that although man is a culture-producing animal at present, there were times when that was non man and no culture. There was infra-culture that preceded culture. This infra-culture became elaborated by man into culture. Hall argues that by going back to infra-culture we could demonstrate the complex biological bases upon which human behaviour has been built at different times in the history of evolution. Infra-culture is behaviour on lower organizational levels that underlie culture. Hall suggests (along with his colleague Linguist Trager) that the number of infra-cultural bases are indeed few and bear little or no apparent relationship to each other on the surface. These are called Primary Message Systems. There are then systems:
(1) Interaction,(2) Association, (3) Subsistence, (4) Bisexuality,(5) Territoriality,(6) Temporality,
(7) Learning,(8) Play,(9) Defence, and (10) Exploitation (use of materials).
Note that only the first, the primary message system of interaction, involves language. All other systems are nonlinguistic forms of communication. Hall finds that language is the most technical of the message systems. It is to be used as a model for the analysis of others. In other words, Hall implies that the analysis of other forms of communication may follow the procedures of analysis of language. He also emphasizes that in addition to language there are other ways in which man communicates that either reinforce or deny what he has said with words. Nonverbal behaviour is an integral part of culture and it includes not only acts but also material objects having the potential for communication:
'Like a telephone system, any communication system has three aspects: its over-all structure, comparable to the telephone network; its components, comparable to switch boards, wires and telephones; and the message itself, which is caried by the network. Similarly messages can be broken down into three components: sets (like words), isolates (like sounds), and patterns (like grammar or syntax). A breakdown of messages into these components, sets, isolates, and patterns is basic to understanding culture as communication'. Patterns are implicit cultural rules by which sets are arranged to give meaning. For example, most people take horses as a single set whereas a trainer of horses examines a number of sets such as height, weight, length of barrel, thickness of chest, depth of chest, configuration of the neck and head, stance, coat conditions, hoofs and gait. These are seen as isolates by laymen but the trainers of horses see them as sets leading on to patterns. Order, selection and congruence characterize the system of communication.
Hall's major investigations centre around man's use of space. Every living thing has physical boundary that separates it from its external environment. That space communicates is well recognized in all societies. Space as an informal cultural system is studied by Hall in all its details. Formal patterning of space has varying degrees of importance and complexity. Use of space is closely linked with status as well. Hall investigates the use of space by humans in relation to distance regulation in animals, crowding and social behaviour in animals, distance receptors such as eyes, ears and nose, immediate receptors such as skin, and muscles, visual space, and use of space in cross-cultural contexts. Hall's investigations also exploit literary works and other arts to an understanding of use of space by individuals, social groups and different language communities. Hall presents his work on use of space for a better understanding of different peoples and their cultures, and for a better world of living and understanding. He finds that literally thousands of our experiences teach us unconsciously that space communicates. A painstaking and laborious process awaits one who wishes to uncover the specific cues. The child who is learning the language cannot distinguish one space category from another by listening to other talk (example are, He found a place in her heart, He has a place in the mountains, I am tired of this place, and so on). In spite of thsi the children are able to make the difference between various space terms from the very few cues provided by others: Space as an informal cultural system is different from space as it is technically elaborated by classroom geography and mathematics. Hall seeks to identify what space is in various cultures, how it is interwoven with individual and social behaviour, how space comes to communicate various values and how its use becomes the diagnostic marker of various individual and social values. Hall is the one who systematized the study of space in human interactions and brought out various crucial facts underlying use of space. All this he does taking and interdisciplinary attitude, but all the same the approach is anthropologically-oriented.
It is seen from the study of literature on nonverbal behaviour that modern growth of explicitly stated studies in communicative nonverbal behaviour in communicative interactions, especially in the United States, indeed, is closely linked with the contributions of Trager, Birdwhistell and Hall. Trager's contributions remained an island, continue to be so even now within linguistic, which, while giving a spurt to investigations of language-related disciplines, has somehow continued to treat nonverbal behaviour studies and a peripheral matter. A remarkable fact is that in spite of the very many attractions within his own paradigm, calling him to go beyond languae variables and to attack variables that impinge on nonverbal behaviour, the linguist in Trager has not strayed beyond what is strictly and formally linguistic (according to trager) and relevant to an understanding of nonverbal behaviour. Birdwhistell's investigations continue but not with many adherents, and yet his investigations have a distinct bearing on studies of nonverbal behaviour. Hall's work is largely absorbed in the current experimental investigations of nonverbal behaviour although it is generally restricted only to some aspects of nonverbal behaviour. Hall's work, unlike those of men other authors, has also caught the imagination of popular science writers leading on to both insightful investigations of nonverbal behaviour, and to speculations. All said and done, anthropologically-oriented approaches to the study of nonverbal behaviour is a continuing and positive aspect of nonverbal behaviour studies and enriches the experimental investigation by providing possible and insightful variables for research and for cross cultural validation of experimental findings.
1.3.3. Psychologically-oriented Approaches to the Study of Nonverbal Behaviour
The psychologically-oriented approaches to the study of nonverbal behaviour are many and they currently dominate the nonverbal communication research scene. Some psychologically-oriented studies focus upon the association of psychological states with nonverbal behaviours. The nonverbal behaviours are taken to be indicative of underlying psychological states. In these studies description on nonverbal behaviour is linked with the description of psychological states of the individuals emitting nonverbal behaviour. In another approach, the studies focus upon observers. The observers are asked to interpret the given nonverbal behaviour in terms of psychological states. These are studies that involve decoding of nonverbal behaviours presented to observe. In encoding studies, different situations, to which corresponding attitudes are explicitly ascribable and clearly linked and elicited, are identified, subjects are placed in these situations and their responses measured. These studies are generally of a role playing type. There is also another approach in which various choices of nonverbal behaviours are presented to subjects. They are asked to indicate their preference among situations. That is, subjects are asked to choose among forms or combinations of behaviour to communicate various attitudes. Evaluation these approaches, Mehrabian (1972) suggests that whereas encoding methods are appropriate in the beginning stages of communication research, the last mentioned above, which he calls the encoding-decoding method, is appropriate for highly developed phrases of nonverbal behaviour research.
The psychologically-oriented approaches have led to a wider coverge of a variety of nonverbal behaviours. Currently studies of all forms of nonverbal behaviour, such as crowding, space utilization, visual behaviour, facial expressions, and abnormal nonverbal behaviour are generally initiated and enriched by the emergence of psychologically-oriented researches. These researches can be traced back to the beginning of modern psychological investigations. After all, retrieval of meanings of human behaviour, and interpretation of human behaviour have been the major purpose of psychology. The specific communicative means of behaviour have always been subject matter of investigation along with the behaviour itself. A salient feature of psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour is the exploitation of statistical measures which are generally not resorted to (or even avoided) in the linguistically and anthropologically-oriented studies. Also, in contrast too linguistically and anthropologically-oriented studies, the psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour are mainly experimental studies, hardly based exclusively on observations. These studies are generally based on individual psychological factors, rather than on social factors, although the social function is not lost sight of. Moreover, the feeling, attitudes and evaluations of individuals are the basic referents of nonverbal behaviour in these studies. Confirmation of these behaviours across statistically significant sets of populations leads on to the social basis, and to confirmation and revelation of the social function of thus proven nonverbal behaviours. In addition, these studies also aim at identification of variables of nonverbal behaviours in communicative contexts. For example, some studies focus on status, positive-ness, etc.
Generally speaking, the psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour are typically articles in research journals based on controlled experiments focusing on limited variables. Validation or rejection of hypotheses, description and explanation of processes involved and an attempt at bringing out a hierarchy of events and variables involved and the hidden processes through an understanding of manifest processes become the focus of these psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour. All aspects of nonverbal behaviour are sought to be dealt with under experimental conditions. Accordingly a lot of energy is expended not on identifying facets and aspects of nonverbal behaviour per se, but on means to bring out the observed nonverbal behaviour variables in a form suitable for controlled experiments. The significance of these variables is hypothesized beforehand and their validity proved or disproved in the experiments. In the process, however, several new meanings hither to hidden are identified and a pattern as well as a hierarchy is established. The psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour, naturally, are influenced by various models of psychology, particularly of learning. The psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour, in a manner of speaking, have become the central part of all nonverbal behaviour studies. These studies are more in number, cove most of the aspects of nonverbal behaviour, attract more investigators and students, and accommodate findings on nonverbal behaviour worked out in other fields, such as linguistic, anthropology and semiotics.
Since most of the psychologically-oriented studies are independent articles, the overall assumptions of psychologically-oriented nonverbal studies are not generally explicitly stated. Mehrabian (1972) suggests that any attempt at a comprehensive description of findings in the study of nonverbal of behavioural cues that are studied (e.g., eye contact, distance leg, and foot movements, facial expressions, voice qualities). Further, the description should also account for the relationships among these cues, the relationships between these and the feelings, attitudes, and personalities of the communicators, and the qualities of the situations in which the communications occur. Note that this scheme is carried out with well designed tools of questionnaires administered orally or usually under appropriate situations for both controlled and experimental groups. Also, appropriate statistical measures are applied to data thus obtained to prove or disprove proposed hypotheses.
1.3.4. Semiotically-oriented Studies of nonverbal Behaviour
Where psychologically-oriented studies of methods and findings, subjecting them to statistical measures and arriving at theoretical models that are generally found in psychology proper, semiotics draws facts from different disciplines and views them from the points of view of sign theory or theories. There is no experiment conducted as a matter of routine, or as a norm in semiotic investigations. Observation, and reasoning out the inter-relationships between observed facts, identification of patterns, validation of facts based o patterns worked out, and identification of/or bringing out manifestly the covert processes through proposals as regards patterns and dynamic processes dominate semiotic investigations. There is, indeed, no model building in semiotic investigations in the sense of forming schools and restricting pursuits within the assumptions and postulates of the school. However, there is a body of knowledge contributed by different scholars as regards the nature, function and componential features of signs and their inter-relationships. There are also procedures, generally not stated explicitly but found practised in most of the semiotic investigations.
The semiotically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour view it as constituting semiotic systems involving various types of signs. Investigations may be carried out based on models of experimental psychology by individual authors. They may, however build their theory and explanations in a semiotic fashion, taking the sign value of facts as crucial. The semiotic analysis of nonverbal behaviour is mainly the interpretation and explanation of date collected through other means. This interpretation and explanation, however, leads on to newer insights and identification of hitherto unknown facts. This is, indeed, one of the major strengths and achievements of the semiotic methods. The semiotically-oriented studies of nonverbal behaviour, generally speaking, compare and contrast the verbal with the nonverbal behaviour. This comparison and contrast takes on the presentation of features involved in a binary opposition. It is also shown as to how the features balance themselves in a communicative act. In this analysis, hidden processes and new information and variables are also revealed and added on.
A sign is everything which can be taken as significantly substituting for something else. This something else does not necessarily have to exist or actually be somewhere at the moment in which a sign stands in for it. Saussure (1915) implicitly regarded sign as a communicative device taking place between two human beings intentionally aiming to communicate or to express something. Not all signs are, however, communicative signs. For example, black clouds are a sign of rain, but we do not communicate with it; the clouds do not respond to us. The communicative signs are all artifacts expressed by persons. Unless there is a response to a sign, the sing cannot be interpreted and is not considered an communicative sign. As Cherry (1980) points out, any artifact may possibly be a sign (a scratch on a stone, a printed mark, a sound - anything), but its sign-hood arises solely from the observer's assumption that it is a sign: 'Signs are outward happenings and thus are observable, which calls for interpretation, or meaning. Such interpretation is of course mental (not observable) so it is revealed by a response sign or reply. All signs require another sign to interpret them; no event can exist as a working system of signs' (Cherry, 1980). Note that nonverbal behaviour does fall within the system of signs directly and immediately, because nonverbal behaviours are acts of communication.
Peirce (1931-1935) finds sign as something which stands to somebody for something in some respects or capacity. Morris (1938) suggests that something is a sign only because it is interpreted as a sign of something by some interpreter. Eco (1977) defines sign as everything that, on the grounds of previously established social convention, can be taken as something standing for something else. It has been defined as a proposition constituted by a valid and revealing connection to its consequent, when this association is culturally recognized and systematically coded. Half a dozen possible relationships are empirically found to prevail between the signifier and the signified. Signifier is the sound or visual image of a sign. Signified is the concept aspect of a sign. Both the signified and the signifier are dialectically united in the sign. The six species of the sign are as follows (Sebeok, 1976):
(1) Signal: When a sign token mechanically (naturally) or conventionally triggers some reaction on the part of a receiver, it is said to function as a signal. Examples of signals are the exclamation 'go!' or alternatively the discharge of a pistol to start a foot face.
(2) Symptom: A symptom is a compulsive, automatic, nonarbitrary sign, with a natural link between it and what it signifies. For example, bodily symptoms indicate the underlying disease.
(3) Icon: A sign is said to be iconic when there is a topological similarity between it and what it signifies. Examples are pictures, diagrams, etc.
(4) Index: A sign is said to be indexic in so far as it is contiguous with what it signifies. Indexes give physical indication. Examples are compass, needles, weather vanes, footprints and droppings of animals, etc.
(5) Symbol: A sign is said to be a symbol when it does not have similarity or continuity with what it signifies, but a conventional link between them is established. Examples are badges, flags, etc.
(6) Name: A sign which has an extensional class for its designation is called a name. In accordance with its definition, individuals denoted by a proper name as Veronica have no common property attributed to them save the fact that they all answer to Veronica.
Note that of the six types of signs listed above, signal, symptom, icon and index fall within nonverbal domain fairly comprehensively and fully. There are elements of symbol as well in nonverbal communication, but these are of a limited quality and quantity. The sign name is perhaps nonexistence is probably a distinguishing mark of nonverbal communication. There are also scholars who consider all the six types of signs occurring in nonverbal communication. Semiotic approaches to the study of nonverbal communication focus more on the dialectics within nonverbal behaviour, on how patterns are formed, and on how the inter-relationships between verbal and nonverbal communication balance themselves in communicative contexts. Coupled with the experimental investigations and findings of psychologically-oriented studies of nonverbal communication, the semiotic approaches to the study of nonverbal communication, indeed, dominate the current assumptions and procedures in studies on nonverbal communication.
1.3.5. Indian Studies of Nonverbal Behaviour
Traditional studies of nonverbal behaviour by Indian scholars link the nonverbal behaviour of everyday life with those of performing and other aesthetic arts and see these behaviours in terms of their exploitation and function in these arts. In other words, nonverbal behaviours are seen as something which occur in nature, in normal communication and as something not fully at the conscious level. These unconscious acts are studied to reveal their communicative nature and to bring out their functions and patterns. In the process of study, the roots of nonverbal behaviour in language, social acts and biology are emphasized. While every act of nonverbal behaviour has its basis in language, society and biology, their exploitation, use, and the manner of their use is based on the psychological need and state of the individual. The ultimate goal of the study of nonverbal behaviour is their exploitation for effective communication in aesthetic arts, for enhancing the aesthetic value of the communication resorted to. It is then seen as an effective tool for aesthetic value of the communication, providing a variety of techniques and a variety of acts. Because the study of nonverbal behaviour is tied to performance, their physical manifestation in the body and the intent of these manifestations to represent underlying psychological needs and states were emphasized. Since in the view of Indian scholars there is a unity of purpose between poetry and drama, indeed, between all arts, physical manifestation of nonverbal behaviour as representations of underlying psychological needs and states is included in every art, in poetry through appropriate description and metaphor using language, in sculpture through direct, indirect and oblique representation of nonverbal acts as physical manifestations, and in dance combining both poetry and sculpture adding to the combination the dimension of movement and symbol.
A chief characteristic of Indian studies of nonverbal behaviour is the inclusion of the same in grammar. For example, Indian traditional grammar include not only the description of intonation patterns and their functions within their scope but also other paralanguage features meant for sarcasm, doubt, emphasis, contradiction and specific identities of registers. This is sought to be achieved in two ways - one, by a direct description and analysis of utterances in terms of their functions in communicative contexts of their functions in communicative contexts just as in linguistic description which present how segmental sounds and sentence intonations get elliptical in the speech of certain professional groups; secondly, by identifying linguistic mechanisms that carry these nonverbal acts, as in the case of prolonging the pronunciation of consonants for certain effects. Also, Indian traditional grammars have developed so as to include separate chapters on nonverbal behaviours, and their import for poetry and other aesthetic arts. The incorporation here with linguistic facts is sometimes peripheral, at times not relevant, but many a time highly relevant for effective communication, choice of diction and standard speech. Thus, by incorporating chapters on nonverbal manifestations, the grammars focus on the performative factors of speech as well, apart from forming a bridge between language of every day discourse and the language of poetry and aesthetic arts. Then, by the mere inclusion of study of nonverbal acts, the overall goal of grammar and its learning is changed. History has not, however, seen to it that what began originally as a descriptive-cum-prescriptive approach to account for the then prevailing practices grew wide and dynamic enough to be alive to the changes in practices or to further develop the system of research applicable to matter other than texts.
In the Sanskrit school of grammar, nonverbal behaviour is prominently discussed within rasa theory. The theory of rasa is intimately connected with the theory of dhvani. It forms the most important aesthetic foundation of Sanskrit poetics. It first appears in the dramatic theory of Bharata; originally in connection with drama (explicit nonverbal behaviour), then as one of the essential factors of poetic theory (description of the nonverbal as suggestive of the underlying intent). While the theory of rasa itself is older than Bharata (500 B.C.?) the general conditions of the theory as fixed by Bharata continue to be accepted as the basis. Elevation of nonverbal communication to aesthetic status and the exploitation of models of nonverbal communication for aesthetic purpose is clearly seen in the concept of abhinaya in treatises on drama and dance, in essence on theatrical performance. Abhinaya, according to Bharata Muni (Nayasastra Chapter IV : verse 23, translation as found in Ghosh, 1967) has four kinds of histrionic representation, or shall we say that communication is carried on through four kinds of means in dance and drama. These are a´gika which deals with bodily movements in their subtle intricacies, vacika which refers to vocal delivery, aharya is communication via costume and make up and sattvika is communication through the accurate representation of the mental and emotional feeling. All these are physical manifestations. The angikabhinaya, which is the visible form of communication through bodily gestures and facial expressions, is certainly primary nonverbal communication mode; there is an insistence on the need for gestures and facial expressions to be in consonance with one another. Communication through perceptual factors such as costume and make up, and the physical manifestation of mental states and emotional feeling are also emphasized for a successful performance. The role of vocal delivery is not minimized either in the process of communication. The practice of representation in a dramatic performance is twofold: realistic (Natural, popular) lokadharmi and conventionally) (theatrical innovation, and used conventionally) nayadharmi (Naya¿astra, Chapter VI and verse 24, as found in the translation of Ghosh, 1967). In other words the communication in aesthetic arts is carried on both by natural (realistic) and conventional signs. Of all the modes of nonverbal communication, gestures and implied meanings in oral delivery have been given a pointed attention in the elucidation and exploitation of nonverbal communication for aesthetic arts in Chapter 5, section 5.4.5. As regards implied meanings we may make a brief statement here on the role of suggestion treated in the Dhvani School of Sanskrit scholars, since we do not deal with the Indian position in Chapter 4 which discusses nonverbal characteristics of language use and silence. In course of our discussions on the scope and definition of nonverbal behaviour we suggested that implied meanings, through an absence of linguistic units, are a form of nonverbal expression. In the dhvani school of poetics, it is suggestion/implied meaning that is considered the essential characteristic of good poetry. The dhvani school, in its analysis of the essentials of poetry, finds that the contents of a good poem may be generally distinguished into two parts. One part is that which is expressed and thus it includes what is given in words; the other part is the content that is not expressed, but must be added to it by the imagination of the reader or the listener. The unexpressed or the suggested part, which is distinctly linked up with the expressed and which is developed by a peculiar process of suggestion, is taken to be soul or essence of poetry. The suggestive part is something different from the merely metaphorical. The metaphorical or the allegoric, however veiled it may be, is still in a sense expressed and must be taken as such; but the suggestive is always unexpressed and is therefore a source of greater charm through its capacity for concealment; for, this concealment in which consists the essence of art, is in reality no concealment at all. The unexpressed in most cases is a mood or feeling (rasa) which is directly inexpressible. The dhvani school took up the moods and feelings as an element of the unexpressed and harmonized the idea of rasa with davani. It is suggested that poetry is not the mere clothing of agreeable ideas in agreeable language. In poetry, the feelings and moods also play an important part. The poet awakens in us, through the power of suggestion inherent in words or ideas, the feelings and moods. Rasa is brought into consciousness by the power of suggestion inherent in words and their sense. Thus, nonverbal communication in aesthetic arts is viewed in Indian treatises as spectacular presence of physical manifestation and suggestive absence of vocal elements.
In the Dravidian School of Grammar (Tolkappiyam of pre-Christian era, 300 B.C.?) also, description and study of nonverbal behaviour is an integral part of grammar, poetry and drama. Nonverbal communication is seen anchored on to physical (and physiological) manifestations. The term used to refer to the nonverbal itself clearly reveals that the idea of nonverbal communication is grounded in physical and physiological manifestations. meyppau (mey meaning body and pau meaning the acts based on body or expressed through bodily acts) is the term used to refer to those manifestations which appear on the body of an individual as a sign of what goes on inside the mind. Those need be no deliberation and whose occurrence is revealed (in poetry and drama) in a natural manner through the bodily acts form the scope of the study of nonverbal behaviour. Tolkappiyam presents eight types of meyppau. All of these are grounded in bodily manifestations. Each one of these eight manifestations is related to four moods or feelings. These moods or feelings may be either causative or consequential. In other words, the major eight manifestations are related to 32 different types of moods/feelings; the latter could be either the causative mechanisms or consequential results. Commentators have differed among themselves as to the content of 32 items, but not on the essentiality of body acts for nonverbal communication, it being the natural, exteran manifestation of internal states, and its retrievability and comprehension without deliberation. It is also considered an essential component of poetry. The grammar prescribes that the poets are not to refer to the feelings as such experienced by the individuals but only to the external manifestations on the body. By reference to the bodily manifestations, and with the help of such references, the reader retrieves the causative and consequential contexts of the poem, its intent and so on. Because of this device, suggestion reigns supreme in poetry. The injunction that the poet is not to refer directly to the feelings of characters but only to bodily manifestation, while recognizing the communicative function of bodily manifestations, aims at making a poem more suggestive and open for varied interpretations and enjoyment. The nonverbal mode is considered a tool to express the internal states. The scheme also includes certain verbal acts as part of the nonverbal. 'We see that even speeches by the heroine and others have been included as forming part of the (nonverbal) group. If the speeches are mere expressions of inner thoughts they are speeches. But if they are emotional outbursts of inner commotion and feeling they are certainly meyppau. If we closely scrutinize the list of meyppau in Tolkappiyam we will see that only such emotional expressions have been listed under meyppau' (Sundaramurthy, 1974). Suggestive power includes under the rubric of the nonverbal whatever has been left out, not said, in the verbal act but is communicated because of their being left out, not said, in the verbal act. Another dimension included is that the nonverbal also includes the verbal if the latter is one of emotional outcome. Note that these view points are also currently held in modern studies of nonverbal behaviour (See Mehrabian, 1972). Also note that in traditional Indian treatises the nonverbal exploits both aural and vision media. The same classification of the nonverbal we find in the traditional Indian grammars is also found in several modern studies of nonverbal behaviour.
1.3.6. Literature and Text-oriented Studies of Nonverbal Behaviour
Creative artists provide insights into human mind, human behaviour, and individual and social thought and behaviour. Both intuitive observations and empirical experimentations of nonverbal behaviour benefit a lot from absorbing what the creative artists have to say on various facets of nonverbal communication and what they have identified and exploited as regards nonverbal behaviour and communication in their works. Creative artists are similar to the investigators who prefer to use mainly their own intuitive analysis, but with one difference. The investigators may tend to look at an object and/or a phenomenon with their own set of rules, ideas and concepts whereas the creative artists may look at the same object and/or phenomenon from so many different angles, rather get into the soul and body of their characters, which a comprehensive picture is provided by them. Note, however, that such a picture is at times quite far from reality.
In literature, the nonverbal behaviour modes depicted by authors may illumine the content or be itself the content of the literary work. The texts provide records of nonverbal communication of past as well as of the present. They may be in codified ritual texts, in didactic works, in religious discourses, or in literary or folk episodes handed down from generation to generation. These provide a clue to the belief system of the societies, provide the world view of the society whose behaviour it regulates or had regulated. Textual analysis gives us rare as well as frequent practices, indicates the significance of nonverbal communication across several social and spatio-temporal levels. The past is linked with the present in the textual analysis. The present is more clearly revealed in the past and its understanding. Textual analysis requires several tools - semantic analysis, morphotion and interpretation of the act described in the text and establishment of linkage between items across texts. Assessment of correctness of interpretation requires several measures such as identification of roots of words, morphological patterns, syntactic comparison and establishment of patterns. The most important function of analysis of nonverbal behaviour as found in texts is the understanding of current behaviour that is narrated.
Textual analysis opens up a mine of information. In literary texts, such as novels, story is carried on and established by what the characters say (linguistic behaviour) and by a description of the nonverbal act indulged in by the characters. Punctuation marks are but only one device which give focus to some paralinguistic features. Other nonverbal communicative acts are revealed in terms of proxemic behaviour, expressions via eye and face, kinesics, use of implied meanings and so on. A large part of the author's narrative, without any one being aware of it, is aimed at the description of nonverbal communicative acts of the characters. Thus, because of infinite possibilities for human stories and acts, and because of insightful observations and artistry of the authors, literary texts also become a mine of information for those who propose to study nonverbal communicative acts.
The paralinguistic characteristics are conveyed by the authors in two ways - through the use of punctuation marks using both conventional ones and those specifically created ones by the authors themselves. The punctuation marks are of a limited quantity. Not many have been really added to the set available, and in Indian languages they were largely adaptations from European languages. Repetition of a punctuation mark, reversal of its placements (in contrast to normal practice), omission of a punctuation mark where it would be generally expected to be used, some peculiar devices either specially defined or brought from a stock of symbols used elsewhere for other purpose but now notices in this area. Another device resorted to, to give an aura of the paralinguistic characteristics, is their description sometimes through metaphorical transfer, sometimes through foregrounding processes (foregrounding refers to the stimulus which is not culturally expected in a social situation; when foregrounding of something takes place, it provokes special attention; foregrounding is generally an intentional distortion of the linguistic), many a time by impregnating an ordinary word with potent meanings.
Poyotos (1977) suggests that it is the depiction of the linguistic-paralinguistic-kinetic structure of the people involved in the story that conveys a feeling of authenticity and becomes a vehicle to transfer what the author has created to the mind of the reader. Nonverbal communication, in the hands of authors, performs six functions, according to Poyotos. Nonverbal communication brings about physical realism, distorting realism, individualizing realism, psychological realism, interactive realism and documentary realism in literary texts. Physical realism conveys the sensorial perception of people's behaviour. Physical realism is differentiated from psychological realism. In psychological realism, the narration of the author delves into the subtle inner reactions, which may be both body and purely mind-based. In distorting realism, the literary, or artistic, expressionistic rendering of physico-psychological reality is 'meant to ridicule, to offer a caricature of reality, or, truly to show what the eyes cannot see'. Individualizing realism is shown in 'the conscious effort to differentiate the characters as to their physical and psychological characteristics, by means of their verbal repertoires and, in the best cases, by their nonverbal ones as well'. Poyotos sees interactive realism employed by authors as 'a thoughtful depiction of the mechanism of conversation mainly in face to face encounters'. The documentary realism is historical realism and is a consequence of physical realism as regards depiction of nonverbal behaviour, occupational activities, general task-performing activities, and activities conditioned by clothes, hairdo, furniture, etc., are part of this realism.
Poyotos also identifies four ways by which the authors usually transmit the nonverbal behaviours in the narrative text. One way is by describing the behaviour and explaining its meanings. This is plain and has been exploited for a long time. Although this method id plain, it, in no way, diminishes the story telling so long as the artistry and content of the story are superb and associated with some greatly influential thoughts. Also note that this plain way of resenting nonverbal behaviours may be dictated by the current practices in storytelling and could also be a stylistic marker of individual authors. Another process of transmitting nonverbal behaviour is by describing the behaviour without explaining the meaning. This is generally meant for a contemporary audience familiar with the meanings of the nonverbal behaviour described. Also note that in contemporary contexts, an obtuse nonverbal behaviour when described, but without its meanings explained, becomes a technique of narration, leaving meor to the personal abilities and sensitivities of readers to retrieve the meanings. A third way is by explaining the meaning without describing the nonverbal behaviour. This meaning may or may not be fully understood by the reader in the same manner it is meant by the author. Another method of presenting nonverbal behaviour in the narrative text is 'by providing a verbal expression always concurrent with the nonverbal one, which is important, but not referred to at all'.
Poyotos also finds that the nonverbal reper toires of the characters play four definite and important functions in narrative technique. These are initial definition of the character, progressive definitions, subsequent identification and recurrent identification of characters. Initial definition of the character is done by means of one or more idiosyncratic linguistic, paralinguistic and/or kinesic features. These features include use of verbal expletives, personal choice of words, a particular tone of voice in certain situations, a gesture, a socially but individually conditioned way of greeting others, other manners and mannerisms, a typical posture which we can identify as a recurrent behaviour, etc. Progressive definition of characters through nonverbal behaviour is by means of adding gradually new features as the story proceeds. 'A feature adds to another feature previously observed, complements it, builds up the physical as well as the psychological or cultural portrait, and assists the reader in the progressive total appreciation of the narration'. Subsequent identification of characters through nonverbal behaviour is by means of repetition for the first time of a feature or features. Such a repetition immediately not only brings back the4 image but also does it at a point in the story when the readers may confuse between characters or may have forgotten the characters' external personalities. Repetition may focus upon verbal expletives, gestures, peculiar tones of voice, etc. Finally, the recurrent identification of characters through nonverbal behaviour is by means of a known feature repeated as many times as necessary at varying intervals in the narrations.
Thus, in a narrative text, the depiction of nonverbal behaviour has several functions to perform - it carries the burden of the story; it complements what the characters say; without such a complementation a comprehensive locale and content cannot be built for the story to proceed further and be comprehended by the readers. The depiction of nonverbal behaviour also provides various types of realism to the story, while providing at the same time various means at the disposal of the author - various processes to define the characters and to retain and recall such definitions to meet the demands of the story as well as the artistry. Both textual analysis and the analysis of literary works provide us with insightful identification of the types, function and defining characteristics of nonverbal communicative acts. Empirically-oriented experimental investigations of nonverbal communicative acts can draw from this mine of information so as to fashion the acts for controlled experimental studies.